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# chem1 virtual textbook

#### a reference text for General Chemistry

#### Stephen Lower

#### Simon Fraser University

## beginner / First Semester

1 What is Chemistry all about, anyway?
  Chemistry in a nutshell: The major concepts and ideas of chemical science, and a look at some of the major currents of modern Chemistry. We hope this will motivate you get through the less-fun stuff in the first-year course!
2 Getting started in Chemistry: essential background New Version - Aug 2013
  Classification and properties of matter • density and buoyancy • energy, heat and temperature • units and dimensions • measurement error and uncertainty • significant figures and rounding off
3 The basics of atoms, moles, formulas, equations New Version - Aug 2013
  These five units take you through basic atomic theory and chemical arithmetic, and how chemicals are named. You will need these skills in amost everything that comes later.
4 What is pseudoscience?
  How to tell the difference from science. Pseudoscience, junk science and quackery are pervasive in our culture, and all-too-many science courses simply ignore it.

## First-semester general chemistry

5 Getting serious about atoms
  5a Primer on quantum theory of the atom
  A quantum catechism: elementary introduction to quantum theory in the form of a question-and-answer "primer", emphasizing the concepts with a minimum of mathematics.
  5b Atomic structure and the periodic table
  Everything you need to know in a first-year college course about the principal concepts of quantum theory as applied to the atom, and how this determines the organization of the periodic table.
  5c Why doesn't the electron fall into the nucleus?
  Opposite charges attract, so why not? It's surprising how few textbooks explain this properly!
6 Properties of gases: matter at its simplest
  A six-part treatment of the gaseous state of matter. Includes numerous examples of application of kinetic molecular theory and a section on real gases.
7 Solids and liquids
  7a States of matter
  condensed states, liquids, types of solids, intermolecular forces, types of molecular units; hydrogen bonding and water; introduction to crystals, ionic solids, cubic and close-packed lattices. Liquids and interfacial effects. Changes of state: vapor pressure, boiling, and phase maps. Polymers and plastics.
  7b Solutions: their chemistry and physical properties
  types of solutions, expressing concentrations, colligative properties and Raoult's law, solutions of volatile substances, osmosis, distillation. Solubility and solubility products, competing equilibria, important solubility systems. Electrolytes: nature of dissolved ions, electrolytic conductance, ionic migration, ground conduction.
8 Chemical bonding and molecular structure
  8a Three views of chemical bonding
  These short tutorials summarize the various ways of looking at bond formation without going into too much detail.
  8b All about chemical bonding
  Ten-part tutorial set on covalent bonding and polar covalence, shapes of molecules (VSEPR theory), hybrid orbitals, molecular orbitals applied to simple diatomics, introduction to transition metal d-orbital splitting and band theory of metals and semiconductors.
9 All about acids and bases
  Covers the fundamental concepts of acids and bases. Except for some stoichiometry and a discussion on pH, this section is largely qualitative. Acid-base equilibrium calculations are not covered in this unit.

## Second Semester / advanced

20 All about chemical equilibrium
  This thorough treatment sets out the underlying concepts without invoking thermodynamics or complicated calculations; considerable emphasis is placed on the distinction between Q and K. The section on equilibrium calculations contains problem examples illustrating techniques such as iterative and graphical solutions of polynomials, all of which employ the "systematic" method of organizing information.
21 Acid-base equilibria
  21a Acid-base equilibria and calculations
  covers the quantitative treatment of acid-base equilibria at somewhat greater breadth and depth than is available in standard textbooks. The principles of electroneutrality and mass balance are used to develop exact solutions for common equilibrium problems, and the common approximations and their limitations are explored. At the other extreme, there is an extensive treatment of the use of log-concentration vs. pH graphs for obtaining approximate solutions of equilibrium problems without arithmetic. There is a detailed discussion of the proton-free energy concept (without the thermodynamics!) that is helpful in understanding more complex acid-base systems. Other sections cover practical methods of solving quadratic and higher-order equations, graphical solution of equilibrium problems, titration curves, the carbonate system, physiological applications, and acid rain.
  21b Acid-base without algebra
  The commonly-taught algebraic method of solving acid-base problems hides the underlying principles and is able to deal with only the simplest systems. Here is a far easier approach that avoids the math, provides a bird's-eye view of what's going on in the solution, and yields equally good results.
  21c The fall of the proton: why acids react with bases
  Acid-base chemistry can be extremely confusing, particularly when dealing with weak acids and bases. This tutorial presents an updated view of the Brønsted-Lowry theory that makes it easy to understand answers to these questions: What's the fundamental difference between a strong acid and a weak acid? Can you neutralize a weak acid with a weak base? Why are some salts acidic and others alkaline? What is the strongest acid that can exist in water?
22 Chemical Energetics
  Introduction to thermodynamics • the First Law • enthalpy • molecules as energy carriers and converters • thermochemistry and calorimetry • some applications of enthalpy and the First Law
23 Thermodynamics of chemical equilibrium
  All about entropy, free energy, and why chemical reactions do or don't take place. Energy spreading and spontaneous change • What is entropy? • The Second Law • Gibbs free energy • free energy and equilibrium • some applications of entropy and free energy
24 All about electrochemistry
  Chemistry and electricity • galvanic cells and electrodes • potential differences at interfaces • cell potentials and thermodynamics • Nernst equation and its applications • batteries and fuel cells • electrochemical corrosion • electrolytic cells and electrolysis

26 Chemical kinetics and reaction mechanisms
  Rate of a reaction, rate laws • integrated rate laws, half-life• collision theory, activation energy and the Arrhenius equation • elementary processes, reaction mechanisms and chain reactions • kinetics of reactions in solution • catalysts and catalysis • experimental methods

## Advanced / miscellany

30 The measure of matter
  The first three sections of this unit cover units and dimensions, measurement error and significant figures and are duplicated in an early first-semester unit. The last two sections, reliability of a measurement and drawing conclusions from data introduce simple statistics that are needed in analytical chemistry courses.
31 The fall of the electron (oxidation-reduction)
  How to predict the directions of oxidation-reduction reactions while avoiding formal electrochemistry. Similar to Fall of the Proton unit 21c. Coverage of biological redox reactions makes this a useful supplement for biochemistry courses.
32 Survey of Environmental Geobiochemistry
  Provides an overview of "environmental chemistry" in its broadest context: the chemical evolution and constitution of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. This formed the background reading for the first two weeks of a third-year Environmental Chemistry course. Much of it is suitable for lower-level courses.
33 Understanding entropy
  In contrast to the common but misleading "entropy is disorganization" line, this tutorial describes entropy as a measure of the spreading and sharing of thermal energy. This concept provides rational, non-mathematical explanations of the effects of temperature change on reaction equilibria and on the colligative properties of solutions.
40 Advanced aquatic chemistry
  These PDF documents were part of an upper-level course in aquatic environmental chemistry.
  40a Acid-base chemistry of natural aquatic systems
  40b Carbonate equilibria in natural waters
  40c Redox equilibria in natural waters
  40d Solids in contact with natural waters

Stephen Lower is a retired faculty member of the Dept of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University
Burnaby / Vancouver, Canada

Chem1 General Chemistry Virtual Textbook is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License

Below: engraving by Bernard Picart (1673-1733) for an illustration to Fontenelle's Oevres Diverses (1729) depicting an alchemy laboratory
with alembic at centre, and, at right, four putti gathered around a crucible; at left, putto carrying coal in a basket